Voluntary and involuntary minorities. The distinction made between different kinds of minorities by John Ogbu. See his article, “Variability in Minority School Performance: A Problem in Search of an Explanation.” Anthropology & Education Quarterly 18, no. 4 (December 1987): 312–334. Involuntary (or castelike) minorities refers to those groups incorporated into a society against their will. In the United States, this term generally refers to American Indians, African Americans, Mexican Americans, and Puerto Ricans, all of whose ancestors were either conquered or enslaved. Voluntary (or immigrant) minorities refers to those who have chosen freely to emigrate to the United States.